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Question 1
What is the main structure of major salivary glands?
Lobules with acini and ducts
Question 2
What are acini in the context of salivary glands?
Secretory epithelial cells that produce saliva
Question 3
What is the function of ducts in salivary glands?
Drain saliva to the oral cavity and modify its contents through reabsorbing or adding electrolytes
Question 4
What are serous acinar cells and how do they differ from mucous acinar cells?
protein-secreting cells
pyramidal shape, round nuclei
Question 5
Mucous acinar cells characterization
columnar, compressed basal nuclei Mucous cells present in mixed seromucous acini
Question 6
Myoepithelial cells in the salivary glands?
small, flattened cells surround the acini or tubules contract and squeeze the saliva out
Question 7
What are the key characteristics of intercalated ducts?
connected to acinus
• cuboidal epithelial cells • contribute to salivary composition
Question 8
What are the key characteristics of striated ducts?
Connected to intercalated ducts
• columnar epithelial cells • contribute to salivary composition
Question 9
Characteristics of excretory ducts
secretory duct
• cuboidal epithelial cells • cell type changes as we move to outer part of gland
Question 10
What are serous acini and striated ducts in the parotid gland?
Serous acini are the secretory units that produce saliva, and striated ducts are the ducts that transport the saliva.
Question 11
What are the main components of the submandibular gland?
serous cells serous demilunes pale-staining mucous cells
Question 12
Histological makeup of sublingual gland?
poorly stained mucous cells
Question 13
Components of saliva
• water - 99% • salivary amylase • mineral salts • mucus • kallikrein • lingual lipase • immunoglobin A
Question 14
What is the primary component of saliva and what does it mean?
Mostly water (99%), hypotonic solution
Question 15
What is the role of salivary amylase in saliva?
Breaks down starch
Question 16
What are the mineral salts in saliva and what is their purpose?
NaHCO3, maintains pH of 6.5-7.5
Question 17
What ions are extracted from the saliva by ductal cells?
Sodium and chloride ions
Question 18
What ions are added to the saliva by ductal cells?
Potassium and bicarbonate
Question 19
What electrolyte renders the saliva hypotonic
loss of NaCl
Question 20
What ion is responsible for the alkalinity of the saliva?
Bicarbonate ions
Question 21
How much saliva is drained into the oral cavity per day
1-1.5. liters
Question 22
Concentration of ions in saliva as the salivary flow rate
increases
Concentration of ions in saliva
decreases
Question 23
What nerve provide PS innervation in the parotid gland?
Glossopharyngeal nerve (CN IX)
Question 24
Which nerve provide PS innervation to submandibular and sublingual glands?
Facial nerve (CN VII)
Question 25
What neurotransmitter increases serous salivary secretion?
Acetylcholine (Ach)
Question 26
Salivary Flow Rate Levels
Unstimulated: 0.3 ml/min Stimulated: 2-4 ml/min Hyposalivation: >0.1 ml/min | >0.7 ml/min
Question 27
What is the origin of sympathetic input in the context of salivary glands?
Sympathetic input originates at the level of thoracic segments T1-T3.
Question 28
Effect of norepinephrine on β-adrenergic receptors
• slightly increase the mucous salivary secretion • little influence on volume of saliva
Question 29
Ach effect on acinar cells?
↑ calcium ion conc. → ↑ volume of secretions + ↓ amylase conc.
Question 30
Norepi effect on acinar cells
activates cAMP ↑ cAMP = amylase-rich secretion
Question 31
Functions of saliva
• Lubrication/hydration •Oral clearance • Digestion • Buffering • Protection • Taste • Anti-bacterial, anti-cavity
Question 32
What is salivomics?
study of the main constituents of saliva in disease and health conditions using molecular biology techniques
Question 33
What are the key steps in integrated digestion and absorption?
1. Mechanical digestion 2. Chemical digestion 3. Absorption
Question 34
What are the three main macronutrients?
Carbohydrates, proteins, and fats.
Question 35
What enzyme starts the digestion of carbohydrates in the mouth?
Salivary amylase
Question 36
What does salivary amylase breakdown
randomly hydrolyzes the glycosidic bonds in carbohydrates
Question 37
What enzymes continue digestion of carbs in intestine?
Pancreatic amylase and disaccharidases
Question 38
Disaccharides
maltase, sucrase, lactase
Question 39
What are the monosaccharides absorbed in the small intestine?
Glucose, fructose, and galactose
Question 40
What is the role of SGLT-1 in glucose transport?
sodium-dependent transporter
transfers glucose from the intestinal lumen into the intestinal mucosa
Question 41
What are GLUTs
sodium independent transporters
Question 42
GLUT-5 function
transports fructose into the intestinal mucosa
Question 43
GLUT-2 function
transports glucose into the liver and beta cells
Question 44
What is the role of GLP-1 in the hormonal regulation of carbohydrate metabolism?
Stimulates: • insulin secretion • insulin biosynthesis • β-cell proliferation • β-cell survival.
Question 45
Effects of increased satiety
decreased food intake and decreased body weight
Question 46
WHere does protein digestion start
in the stomach by pepsin
Question 47
Enzymes that hydrolyze peptide bonds
proteases and peptidases
Question 48
What enzymes break proteins into peptones
pepsin (converted from pepsiongen) endopeptidase
Question 49
Which enzymes are involved in the degradation of proteins in the small intestine?
Trypsin, chymotrypsin, carboxypeptidase, elastase
Question 50
What are the mechanisms by which amino acids and di/tripeptides are absorbed by enterocytes?
by enterocytes via: 1. sodium hydrogen exchanger (NHE) 2. peptide transporter 1 (PepT1)
Question 51
What are aminopeptidases and where are they located?
enzymes that finalize the peptide digestion to amino acids located on the plasma membrane of intestinal cells (enterocytes)
Question 52
Main digestive enzymes involved in lipid digestion in the small intestine?
Bile acids and pancreatic lipase
Question 53
How do Pancreatic lipases help in lipid digestion
hydrolyze triglyceride lipids to fatty acids, monoglycerides and cholesterol
Question 54
How do bile acids contribute to lipid digestion?
emulsify lipids and increase the surface area for digestion
Question 55
What is the role of bile salts in dietary lipid digestion?
Bile salts emulsify dietary triacylglycerols.
Question 56
What are the steps involved in the digestion of dietary triacylglycerols?
1. Emulsification by bile salts 2. Digestion by pancreatic lipases to fatty acids and glycerol 3. Formation of micelles around monoglycerides and free fatty acids 4. Diffusion to enterocytes 5. Resynthesis into triacylglycerols and packaging into chylomicrons
Question 57
How are chylomicrons transported to the lymph?
Chylomicrons are transported to the lymph by exocytosis.
Question 58
What are micronutrients?
Micronutrients are essential nutrients that the body needs in small amounts to function properly.
Question 59
Where are minerals mainly digested in the body?
In the intestines
Question 60
Where is Calcium absorbed?
through SI requires vit D
Question 61
What is the primary form of iron absorbed in the body?
Ferrous state by duodenum
Question 62
Which part of the small intestine is responsible for absorbing folate?
Proximal jejunum
Question 63
Where are bile acids reabsorbed
ileum
Question 64
Where is water reabsorbed
via intestine mostly jejunum completed in colon
Question 65
What are the two categories of vitamins based on their solubility?
Water-soluble and Fat-soluble
Question 66
What vitamins are water soluable
B complex and C
Question 67
What vitamins are fat soluble
A, D, E, K
Question 68
Which vitamins are part of the Vitamin B Complex and what are their subcategories?
• Energy-releasing: B1, B2, B3 • Hematopoietic: B12 + B9 'folic acid' • Other: pyridoxine, pyridoxal, pyridoxamine
Question 69
How are fat-soluble vitamins absorbed in the intestine?
Incorporated in micelles and absorbed with lipids
Question 70
How are water soluble vitamins absorbed
via sodium dependent transport mechanism
Question 71
What is the common source of Vitamin A?
Liver, eggs, fish
Question 72
What is the function of Vitamin A in the eye?
• combines with opsin to form rhodopsin - crucial for light sensing in retina • for the differentiation + proliferation of epithelial cells
Question 73
What are the symptoms of Vitamin A deficiency?
• Night blindness • hyperkeratinization of the skin • enamel hypoplasia (rare)
Question 74
What is the role of Vitamin B1 (Thiamine) in the body?
Vitamin B1 (Thiamine) plays a crucial role in energy homeostasis.
Question 75
What are the symptoms of Vitamin B1 deficiency?
neurological, cardiovascular, and musculature issues such as beriberi.
Question 76
What is the co-enzyme form of niacin?
NAD
Question 77
B2 function
cofactor in the oxidation and reduction of several metabolic reactions
Question 78
B2 deficiency
sore, red throat, cracked and dry lips, glossitis, angular cheilitis, and scaly skin (scrotum, labia and edges of nose).
Question 79
B3 function
Niacin is converted to the co-enzyme (NAD) required for electron transfer in carbohydrate, and lipid metabolism.
Question 80
B3 deficiency
diarrhea, dermatitis, dementia Oral : glossitis and stomatitis
Question 81
B6 Function
co-enzyme for synthesis of amino acids and catecholamines
Question 82
B6 deficiency
Rare dermatitis, glossitis and anemia
Question 83
What is the role of Vitamin B9 (Folate) in the body?
Coenzyme for nucleotide synthesis, DNA repair, and growth of red blood cells.
Question 84
What are the symptoms of Vitamin B9 (Folate) deficiency?
Megaloblastic anemia, glossitis, birth defects (neural tube defects).
Question 85
What is the role of Vitamin B12 (cyanocobalamin) in the body?
Hemoglobin synthesis, protein and fat metabolism.
Question 86
What is the cause of Vitamin B12 (cyanocobalamin) deficiency?
Rare but due to malabsorption.
Question 87
B12 deficiency
megaloblastic “pernicious” (B12 malabsorption) anemia, glossitis, angular cheilitis, aphthous-like ulceration, pallor, fatigue
Question 88
What is Vitamin C also known as?
Ascorbic acid
Question 89
What are the functions of Vitamin C?
Antioxidant, coenzyme for collagen synthesis, facilitates iron absorption, improves wound healing, and maintains blood vessel function
Question 90
What are the symptoms of Vitamin C deficiency?
Scurvy
• dermatitis • swollen gums • bruising • poor wound healing • anemia Advanced cases: gingival swelling and bleeding due to chronic inflammation
Question 91
What are the common sources of Vitamin D?
Fortified milk, milk products, and meat.
Question 92
What is the activated form of Vitamin D and what does it regulate?
Calcitriol, it regulates calcium and phosphorous homeostasis.
Question 93
What are the consequences of Vitamin D deficiency?
Hypocalcemia, rickets in children, and osteomalacia in adults abnormal alveolar bone patterns and hypo-mineralization of the tooth
Question 94
What are the common sources of Vitamin E?
Green vegetables
Question 95
What are the functions of Vitamin E?
Antioxidant and several biochemical functions
Question 96
What are the symptoms of Vitamin E deficiency?
Neuropathy, abnormal gait, and hemolytic anemia
Question 97
What is the definition of an electrolyte?
Minerals that have an electric charge when dissolved in water.
Question 98
Which dietary electrolytes/minerals will be covered in this course?
Potassium, Magnesium, Zinc
Question 99
List other electrolytes/minerals of importance.
Calcium, iron, sodium, chloride, phosphorus
Question 100
What are the common sources of potassium?
Fruits, vegetables, soybeans, potatoes, meat, fish, yogurt, nuts, whole wheat flour, milk, coffee, tea, etc.
Question 101
What are the functions of potassium?
Required for normal cellular function (maintaining fluid volume)
Question 102
What are the symptoms of potassium deficiency?
Hypokalemia
increased blood pressure, increased risk of kidney stones, bone turnover, urinary calcium excretion, salt sensitivity
Question 103
What are the common sources of magnesium?
Green leafy vegetables, legumes, nuts, seeds, whole grains, and some breakfast cereals and fortified foods.
Question 104
What are the functions of magnesium?
Cofactor in many biochemical reactions required for energy production, oxidative phosphorylation, and glycolysis
Question 105
What are the symptoms of magnesium deficiency?
loss of appetite nausea/vomiting fatigue/weakness tingling/numbness muscle contractions Seizures, arrhythmias
Question 106
What are the common sources of zinc?
Meat, fish, seafood, beans, nuts, and whole grains.
Question 107
What are the functions of zinc in the body?
Cellular metabolism, enhancing immune function, wound healing, cell signaling, and DNA & protein synthesis.
Question 108
What are the body-wide effects of zinc deficiency in infants and children?
Diarrhea, delayed growth.
Question 109
What are the body-wide effects of zinc deficiency in older children?
alopecia, frequent infections, loss of appetite
Question 110
What are the body-wide effects of zinc deficiency in adults?
reproductive issues, affected taste and smell, cognitive and psychological decline