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🏠Salivary Glands + Vitamins

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Question Bank

1
What is the main structure of major salivary glands?
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Lobules with acini and ducts

2
What are acini in the context of salivary glands?
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Secretory epithelial cells that produce saliva

3
What is the function of ducts in salivary glands?
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Drain saliva to the oral cavity and modify its contents through reabsorbing or adding electrolytes

4
What are serous acinar cells and how do they differ from mucous acinar cells?
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protein-secreting cells pyramidal shape, round nuclei

5
Mucous acinar cells characterization
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columnar, compressed basal nuclei Mucous cells present in mixed seromucous acini

6
Myoepithelial cells in the salivary glands?
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small, flattened cells surround the acini or tubules contract and squeeze the saliva out

7
What are the key characteristics of intercalated ducts?
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connected to acinus • cuboidal epithelial cells • contribute to salivary composition

8
What are the key characteristics of striated ducts?
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Connected to intercalated ducts • columnar epithelial cells • contribute to salivary composition

9
Characteristics of excretory ducts
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secretory duct • cuboidal epithelial cells • cell type changes as we move to outer part of gland

10
What are serous acini and striated ducts in the parotid gland?
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Serous acini are the secretory units that produce saliva, and striated ducts are the ducts that transport the saliva.

11
What are the main components of the submandibular gland?
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serous cells serous demilunes pale-staining mucous cells

12
Histological makeup of sublingual gland?
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poorly stained mucous cells

13
Components of saliva
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• water - 99% • salivary amylase • mineral salts • mucus • kallikrein • lingual lipase • immunoglobin A

14
What is the primary component of saliva and what does it mean?
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Mostly water (99%), hypotonic solution

15
What is the role of salivary amylase in saliva?
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Breaks down starch

16
What are the mineral salts in saliva and what is their purpose?
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NaHCO3, maintains pH of 6.5-7.5

17
What ions are extracted from the saliva by ductal cells?
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Sodium and chloride ions

18
What ions are added to the saliva by ductal cells?
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Potassium and bicarbonate

19
What electrolyte renders the saliva hypotonic
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loss of NaCl

20
What ion is responsible for the alkalinity of the saliva?
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Bicarbonate ions

21
How much saliva is drained into the oral cavity per day
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1-1.5. liters

22
Concentration of ions in saliva as the salivary flow rate increases
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Concentration of ions in saliva decreases

23
What nerve provide PS innervation in the parotid gland?
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Glossopharyngeal nerve (CN IX)

24
Which nerve provide PS innervation to submandibular and sublingual glands?
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Facial nerve (CN VII)

25
What neurotransmitter increases serous salivary secretion?
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Acetylcholine (Ach)

26
Salivary Flow Rate Levels
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Unstimulated: 0.3 ml/min Stimulated: 2-4 ml/min Hyposalivation: >0.1 ml/min | >0.7 ml/min

27
What is the origin of sympathetic input in the context of salivary glands?
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Sympathetic input originates at the level of thoracic segments T1-T3.

28
Effect of norepinephrine on β-adrenergic receptors
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• slightly increase the mucous salivary secretion • little influence on volume of saliva

29
Ach effect on acinar cells?
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↑ calcium ion conc. → ↑ volume of secretions + ↓ amylase conc.

30
Norepi effect on acinar cells
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activates cAMP ↑ cAMP = amylase-rich secretion

31
Functions of saliva
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• Lubrication/hydration •Oral clearance • Digestion • Buffering • Protection • Taste • Anti-bacterial, anti-cavity

32
What is salivomics?
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study of the main constituents of saliva in disease and health conditions using molecular biology techniques

33
What are the key steps in integrated digestion and absorption?
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1. Mechanical digestion 2. Chemical digestion 3. Absorption

34
What are the three main macronutrients?
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Carbohydrates, proteins, and fats.

35
What enzyme starts the digestion of carbohydrates in the mouth?
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Salivary amylase

36
What does salivary amylase breakdown
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randomly hydrolyzes the glycosidic bonds in carbohydrates

37
What enzymes continue digestion of carbs in intestine?
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Pancreatic amylase and disaccharidases

38
Disaccharides
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maltase, sucrase, lactase

39
What are the monosaccharides absorbed in the small intestine?
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Glucose, fructose, and galactose

40
What is the role of SGLT-1 in glucose transport?
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sodium-dependent transporter transfers glucose from the intestinal lumen into the intestinal mucosa

41
What are GLUTs
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sodium independent transporters

42
GLUT-5 function
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transports fructose into the intestinal mucosa

43
GLUT-2 function
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transports glucose into the liver and beta cells

44
What is the role of GLP-1 in the hormonal regulation of carbohydrate metabolism?
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Stimulates: • insulin secretion • insulin biosynthesis • β-cell proliferation • β-cell survival.

45
Effects of increased satiety
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decreased food intake and decreased body weight

46
WHere does protein digestion start
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in the stomach by pepsin

47
Enzymes that hydrolyze peptide bonds
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proteases and peptidases

48
What enzymes break proteins into peptones
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pepsin (converted from pepsiongen) endopeptidase

49
Which enzymes are involved in the degradation of proteins in the small intestine?
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Trypsin, chymotrypsin, carboxypeptidase, elastase

50
What are the mechanisms by which amino acids and di/tripeptides are absorbed by enterocytes?
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by enterocytes via: 1. sodium hydrogen exchanger (NHE) 2. peptide transporter 1 (PepT1)

51
What are aminopeptidases and where are they located?
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enzymes that finalize the peptide digestion to amino acids located on the plasma membrane of intestinal cells (enterocytes)

52
Main digestive enzymes involved in lipid digestion in the small intestine?
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Bile acids and pancreatic lipase

53
How do Pancreatic lipases help in lipid digestion
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hydrolyze triglyceride lipids to fatty acids, monoglycerides and cholesterol

54
How do bile acids contribute to lipid digestion?
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emulsify lipids and increase the surface area for digestion

55
What is the role of bile salts in dietary lipid digestion?
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Bile salts emulsify dietary triacylglycerols.

56
What are the steps involved in the digestion of dietary triacylglycerols?
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1. Emulsification by bile salts 2. Digestion by pancreatic lipases to fatty acids and glycerol 3. Formation of micelles around monoglycerides and free fatty acids 4. Diffusion to enterocytes 5. Resynthesis into triacylglycerols and packaging into chylomicrons

57
How are chylomicrons transported to the lymph?
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Chylomicrons are transported to the lymph by exocytosis.

58
What are micronutrients?
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Micronutrients are essential nutrients that the body needs in small amounts to function properly.

59
Where are minerals mainly digested in the body?
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In the intestines

60
Where is Calcium absorbed?
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through SI requires vit D

61
What is the primary form of iron absorbed in the body?
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Ferrous state by duodenum

62
Which part of the small intestine is responsible for absorbing folate?
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Proximal jejunum

63
Where are bile acids reabsorbed
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ileum

64
Where is water reabsorbed
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via intestine mostly jejunum completed in colon

65
What are the two categories of vitamins based on their solubility?
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Water-soluble and Fat-soluble

66
What vitamins are water soluable
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B complex and C

67
What vitamins are fat soluble
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A, D, E, K

68
Which vitamins are part of the Vitamin B Complex and what are their subcategories?
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• Energy-releasing: B1, B2, B3 • Hematopoietic: B12 + B9 'folic acid' • Other: pyridoxine, pyridoxal, pyridoxamine

69
How are fat-soluble vitamins absorbed in the intestine?
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Incorporated in micelles and absorbed with lipids

70
How are water soluble vitamins absorbed
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via sodium dependent transport mechanism

71
What is the common source of Vitamin A?
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Liver, eggs, fish

72
What is the function of Vitamin A in the eye?
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• combines with opsin to form rhodopsin - crucial for light sensing in retina • for the differentiation + proliferation of epithelial cells

73
What are the symptoms of Vitamin A deficiency?
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• Night blindness • hyperkeratinization of the skin • enamel hypoplasia (rare)

74
What is the role of Vitamin B1 (Thiamine) in the body?
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Vitamin B1 (Thiamine) plays a crucial role in energy homeostasis.

75
What are the symptoms of Vitamin B1 deficiency?
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neurological, cardiovascular, and musculature issues such as beriberi.

76
What is the co-enzyme form of niacin?
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NAD

77
B2 function
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cofactor in the oxidation and reduction of several metabolic reactions

78
B2 deficiency
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sore, red throat, cracked and dry lips, glossitis, angular cheilitis, and scaly skin (scrotum, labia and edges of nose).

79
B3 function
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Niacin is converted to the co-enzyme (NAD) required for electron transfer in carbohydrate, and lipid metabolism.

80
B3 deficiency
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diarrhea, dermatitis, dementia Oral : glossitis and stomatitis

81
B6 Function
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co-enzyme for synthesis of amino acids and catecholamines

82
B6 deficiency
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Rare dermatitis, glossitis and anemia

83
What is the role of Vitamin B9 (Folate) in the body?
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Coenzyme for nucleotide synthesis, DNA repair, and growth of red blood cells.

84
What are the symptoms of Vitamin B9 (Folate) deficiency?
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Megaloblastic anemia, glossitis, birth defects (neural tube defects).

85
What is the role of Vitamin B12 (cyanocobalamin) in the body?
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Hemoglobin synthesis, protein and fat metabolism.

86
What is the cause of Vitamin B12 (cyanocobalamin) deficiency?
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Rare but due to malabsorption.

87
B12 deficiency
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megaloblastic “pernicious” (B12 malabsorption) anemia, glossitis, angular cheilitis, aphthous-like ulceration, pallor, fatigue

88
What is Vitamin C also known as?
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Ascorbic acid

89
What are the functions of Vitamin C?
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Antioxidant, coenzyme for collagen synthesis, facilitates iron absorption, improves wound healing, and maintains blood vessel function

90
What are the symptoms of Vitamin C deficiency?
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Scurvy • dermatitis • swollen gums • bruising • poor wound healing • anemia Advanced cases: gingival swelling and bleeding due to chronic inflammation

91
What are the common sources of Vitamin D?
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Fortified milk, milk products, and meat.

92
What is the activated form of Vitamin D and what does it regulate?
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Calcitriol, it regulates calcium and phosphorous homeostasis.

93
What are the consequences of Vitamin D deficiency?
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Hypocalcemia, rickets in children, and osteomalacia in adults abnormal alveolar bone patterns and hypo-mineralization of the tooth

94
What are the common sources of Vitamin E?
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Green vegetables

95
What are the functions of Vitamin E?
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Antioxidant and several biochemical functions

96
What are the symptoms of Vitamin E deficiency?
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Neuropathy, abnormal gait, and hemolytic anemia

97
What is the definition of an electrolyte?
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Minerals that have an electric charge when dissolved in water.

98
Which dietary electrolytes/minerals will be covered in this course?
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Potassium, Magnesium, Zinc

99
List other electrolytes/minerals of importance.
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Calcium, iron, sodium, chloride, phosphorus

100
What are the common sources of potassium?
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Fruits, vegetables, soybeans, potatoes, meat, fish, yogurt, nuts, whole wheat flour, milk, coffee, tea, etc.

101
What are the functions of potassium?
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Required for normal cellular function (maintaining fluid volume)

102
What are the symptoms of potassium deficiency?
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Hypokalemia increased blood pressure, increased risk of kidney stones, bone turnover, urinary calcium excretion, salt sensitivity

103
What are the common sources of magnesium?
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Green leafy vegetables, legumes, nuts, seeds, whole grains, and some breakfast cereals and fortified foods.

104
What are the functions of magnesium?
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Cofactor in many biochemical reactions required for energy production, oxidative phosphorylation, and glycolysis

105
What are the symptoms of magnesium deficiency?
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loss of appetite nausea/vomiting fatigue/weakness tingling/numbness muscle contractions Seizures, arrhythmias

106
What are the common sources of zinc?
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Meat, fish, seafood, beans, nuts, and whole grains.

107
What are the functions of zinc in the body?
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Cellular metabolism, enhancing immune function, wound healing, cell signaling, and DNA & protein synthesis.

108
What are the body-wide effects of zinc deficiency in infants and children?
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Diarrhea, delayed growth.

109
What are the body-wide effects of zinc deficiency in older children?
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alopecia, frequent infections, loss of appetite

110
What are the body-wide effects of zinc deficiency in adults?
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reproductive issues, affected taste and smell, cognitive and psychological decline